Tailoring CuO_x loading on CoFe₂O₄ nanocubes photocatalyst for superior photocatalytic degradation of triclosan pollutants under VL irradiation and toxicological evaluation

In this study, we report the development of a novel CuO_x(3 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ nanocubes (NCs) photocatalyst through simple co-precipitation and wet impregnation methods for the efficient photocatalytic degradation of triclosan (TCS) pollutants. Initially, rod-shaped bare CoFe₂O₄ was synthesized using a simple co-precipitation technique. Subsequently, CuO_x was loaded in various percentages (1, 2, and 3 wt%) onto the surface of bare CoFe₂O₄ nanorods (NRs) via the wet impregnation method. The synthesized materials were systematically characterized to evaluate their composition, structural and electrical characteristics. The CuO_x(3 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ NCs photocatalyst exhibited superior photocatalytic degradation efficiency of TCS (89.9%) compared to bare CoFe₂O₄ NRs (62.1 %), CuO_x(1 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ (80.1 %), CuO_x(2 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ (87.0 %) under visible light (VL) irradiation (λ ≥ 420 nm), respectively. This enhanced performance was attributed to the improved separation effectiveness of photogenerated electron (e⁻) and hole (h⁺) in CuO_x(3 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ NCs. Furthermore, the optimized CuO_x(3 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ NCs exhibited strong stability and reusability in TCS degradation, as demonstrated by three successive cycles. Genetic screening on Caenorhabditis elegans showed that CuO_x(3 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ NCs reduced ROS-induced oxidative stress during TCS photocatalytic degradation. ROS levels decreased at 30, 60, and 120-min intervals during TCS degradation, accompanied by improved egg hatching rates. Additionally, expression levels of stress-responsible antioxidant proteins like SOD-3GFP and HSP-16.2GFP were significantly normalized. This study demonstrates the efficiency of CuO_x(3 wt%)/CoFe₂O₄ NCs in degrading TCS pollutants, offers insights into toxicity dynamics, and recommends its use for future environmental remediation.